قراءات إضافية
عام
Two books by Walter Laqueur, Terrorism (London: Little, Brown, 1977) and The Terrorism Reader (London: Wildwood House, 1979)
provide a concise historical background; his more recent The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999) is more prolix and more alarmist, with
an extensive bibliographical essay—whose only major lacuna is, oddly, the topic
of ‘fanaticism’, so loudly announced in the book’s title but sketchily treated
in the text. Grant Wardlaw, Political Terrorism: Theory,
Tactics and Countermeasures (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1982, 1990) is a judicious analysis, while Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (London: Victor Gollancz, 1998) is
a useful survey from the Rand Corporation perspective, hard-nosed and
unsentimental. For a more radical perspective, see Richard Falk, Revolutionaries and Functionaries: The Dual Face of
Terrorism (New York: Dutton, 1988). Louise Richardson, What Terrorists Want: Understanding the Terrorist
Threat (London: John Murray, 2006), and Richard English,
Terrorism: How to Respond (Oxford
University Press, 2009) thoughtfully analyse historical experience. In the spate
of books following 9/11, one or two are still worth reading, such as Strobe
Talbott and Nayan Chanda (eds.), The Age of
Terror (New York: Basic Books, 2001). Cindy C. Combs, Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century (Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1997) is a college textbook that reveals much
conventional wisdom on the subject.
إرهاب الدولة
Most writing on terror is workmanlike rather than brilliant, but an
important exception is Eugene V. Walter’s essay in historical anthropology,
Terror and Resistance (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1969). Most conservative writers avoid the subject of state
terror (the extensive section headed ‘state terrorism’ in Laqueur’s New Terrorism, for instance, proves to be all about
‘state-sponsored’ terror—a completely different subject—on the part of the USSR,
Libya, Iran, and Iraq), so much of the commentary comes from a radical
perspective: a fair example is William D. Perdue, Terrorism and the State (New York: Praeger, 1989). Alexander
George (ed.), Western State Terrorism
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991) contains several challenging
essays, including a fierce critique of ‘The Discipline of Terrorology’ by the
editor, who notes that his prime subject, Paul Wilkinson, ‘unlike many in this
area, is not a raving madman’. There is a comparative study of two Latin
American cases in David Pion-Berlin, The Ideology of
State Terror: Economic Doctrine and Political Repression in Argentina and
Peru (Boulder, CO: L. Rienner, 1989).
الإرهاب الثوري
The classic study of Russian populism is Franco Venturi, Roots of Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1960). Zeev
Ivianski, Individual Terror: Theory and
Practice (Tel Aviv: ha-Kibbutz ha-Meuchad, 1977) is a lucid
analysis. The contribution of women to revolutionary violence in Tsarist Russia
is evoked in Vera Broido, Apostles into
Terrorists (New York: Viking Press, 1977). For the anarchists in
general, see George Woodcock, Anarchism
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), and in particular Martin A. Miller, Kropotkin (Chicago: Chicago University Press,
1976). Martha Crenshaw’s study of the FLN in Algeria, Revolutionary Terrorism (Stanford: Hoover Institute Press, 1978)
is an exemplary fusion of particular analysis with a wide theoretical vision.
More idiosyncratic, but interesting, is Richard E. Rubinstein, Alchemists of Revolution: Terrorism in the Modern
World (New York: Basic Books, 1987). A densely written but
rewarding analysis of small-group terrorists in Italy and Germany can be found
in Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political
Violence and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1995).
الإرهاب القومي
On the IRA, M. L. R. Smith, Fighting for
Ireland? The Military Strategy of the Irish Republican Movement
(London: Routledge, 1995) presents a level-headed academic examination; Patrick
Bishop and Eamon Mallie, The Provisional IRA
(London: Heineman, 1987) and Peter Taylor, Provos: The
IRA and Sinn Fein (London: Bloomsbury, 1997) are excellent
journalists’ investigations.
ETA is, unsurprisingly, less well covered in English, but see John
Sullivan, ETA and Basque Nationalism (London:
Routledge, 1988) and Joseba Zulaika, Basque
Violence (Reno, NV: University of Nevada, 1988).
The logic and methods of Zionist groups are illuminated in Yehuda
Bauer, From Diplomacy to Resistance (New
York: Atheneum, 1973); on the Lehi, see Joseph Heller, The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror 1940–1949 (London:
Frank Cass, 1995); on the Irgun, Menachem Begin’s memoir The Revolt (London: W. H. Allen, 1979) is obligatory reading,
while there is an absorbing account of their most famous operation in Thurston
Clarke, By Blood and Fire: The Attack on the King David
Hotel (New York: Putnam, 1981). Less gripping than Begin, but
useful, is General George Grivas, Guerrilla Warfare and
EOKA’s Struggle (London: Longmans, 1964).
الإرهاب الديني
There is a consistently worthwhile collection of essays in Mark
Juergensmeyer (ed.), Violence and the Sacred in the
Modern World (London: Frank Cass, 1992), and a longer study of
‘religious nationalism’ by Juergensmeyer, The New Cold
War? (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
Juergensmeyer’s recent Terrorism in the Mind of
God (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000) engages with
violence in three religious traditions, though it leaves hanging the question
whether God is actor or audience in this terror process. There is a wide
overview in Madawi al-Rasheed and Marat Shterin (eds.), Dying for Faith: Religiously Motivated Violence in the Contemporary
World (London: Tauris, 2009). Jihadist thinking is lucidly
addressed in Malise Ruthven, A Fury for God: The
Islamist Attack on America (London: Granta Books, 2002) and Mary
R. Habeck, Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the
War on Terror (New Haven and London: Yale University Press,
2006). Fred Halliday offers a typically sharp essay on ‘terrorisms in historical
perspective’, in Nation and Religion in the Middle
East (London: Saqi Books, 2000). For a remarkable rethinking, see
Faisal Devji, The Terrorist in Search of Humanity:
Militant Islam and Global Politics (London: Hurst, 2008). Of five
illuminating volumes on fundamentalism by Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby,
see especially Fundamentalisms Comprehended
(Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1995). Martin Kramer provides a forensic
analysis of Hezbollah in The Moral Logic of
Hizbullah (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1987), and Ehud
Sprinzak of Gush Emunim in Brother Against
Brother (New York: Free Press, 1999). There are several
interesting attempts to analyse suicide attacks, for instance Diego Gambetta
(ed.), Making Sense of Suicide Missions
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). There are contrasting interpretations
in Robert Pape, Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of
Suicide Terror (New York: Random House, 2005) and Mia Bloom,
Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide
Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005). For the
social networks, see Marc Sageman, Leaderless
Jihad (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press,
2008).
مكافحة الإرهاب
John B. Wolf, Antiterrorist
Initiatives (New York: Plenum Press, 1989) sets out the menu;
Alex P. Schmid and Ronald D. Crelinsten (eds.), Western
Responses to Terrorism (London: Frank Cass, 1993) collects a
number of helpful essays on both regional and theoretical issues. Benjamin
Netanyahu (ed.), Terrorism: How the West Can
Win (London: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1986) is a famous right-wing
call to arms, whose loaded assumptions are loudly signalled in its title. The
call to abandon conventional restraints is amplified in Alan Dershowitz,
Why Terrorism Works (New Haven and
London: Yale University Press, 2002). There is a forensic examination of
American antiterrorist methods before 9/11 in John K. Cooley, Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International
Terrorism (London: Pluto Press, 1999), and a remarkable personal
account in Richard A. Clarke, Against All Enemies:
Inside America’s War on Terror (London: Simon & Schuster,
2004). Later ‘war on terror’ strategy is assessed in Seth Jones, In the Graveyard of Empires: America’s War in
Afghanistan (New York: Norton, 2009). Christopher Hewitt,
The Effectiveness of Anti-Terrorist
Policies (Langham, MD: University Press of America, 1984) is a
rare attempt to find ways of measuring effects. For a pioneering example of
‘critical terrorism studies’, see Richard Jackson, Writing the War on Terrorism: Language, Politics and
Counter-Terrorism (Manchester: Manchester University Press,
2005).
On the issue of democracy, Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism Versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response (London:
Routledge, 2011) offers a commonsensical overview, though producing little
evidence that terrorism threatens democracy as such. See also David A. Charters
(ed.), The Deadly Sin of Terrorism: Its Effect on
Democracy and Civil Liberty in Six Countries (Westport, Conn.:
Greenwood Press, 1994). On the media in particular, see Alex P. Schmid and Janny
de Graaf, Violence as Communication: Insurgent Terrorism
and the Western News Media (Beverly Hills: Sage,
1982).